Nanotechnology as a Novel Approach in Combating Microbes Providing an Alternative to Antibiotics

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lysis of E.coli by penicillin

Table of Contents

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Microbes

Infectious Microbial Species

3. Conventional Antibiotics

3.1. Mode of Action of Antibiotics

3.2. Origin of Antibiotic Resistance

3.3. Development of Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic enzyme inactivation/degradation; an endogenous cellular enzyme is modified to interact with that of the antibiotic in a manner in which the bacteria are no longer affected. B-lactamase enzymes are among the most important examples; they hydrolyze most commonly administered antibiotics, i.e., b-lactams (cephalosporin and penicillin), and are the most widespread source of antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria.
The excretion of the drug through efflux pumps; Bacteria are triggered to eliminate the antibiotic by stimulating the proteins that can eradicate an extensive range of substances from the periplasm to the outside cell. This is a mechanism of resistance especially essential for P. aeruginosa and Acinetobacter spp.
Reduced absorption by variations in the external membrane permeability; these changes inhibit the successful entry of antibiotics.
Drug target modifications to weaken or demolish the antibiotic binding efficacy and thereby minimize its potential.

3.4. Availability of Antibiotics

4. Nanomaterials

4.1. History and Development of Nanomaterials

4.2. Nanoparticles Act as Antimicrobials

4.3. Classification of Nanomaterials

Carbon-based nanomaterial
Inorganic nanomaterial
Organic-based nanomaterial
Composite-based nanomaterial

4.3.1. Carbon-Based Nanomaterial

Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)

Fullerenes

Graphene Oxide (GO)

4.3.2. Inorganic Nanomaterial

Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

Gold Nanoparticles

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles

Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

Copper Nanoparticles

Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles

Nitric Oxide (NO)—Releasing Nanoparticles

Magnesium Oxide Nanoparticles

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles

Super-Paramagnetic Iron Oxide (SPION)

4.3.3. Organic-Based Nanomaterials

Poly-ε-Lysine

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

N–Halamine Compounds

Polysiloxanes

Benzoic Acid, Phenol, and p-Hydroxy Benzoate Esters

Quaternary Phosphonium or Sulfonium Groups

Triclosan

Chitosan

a.: Adding it to the negatively loaded cell surface, inducing agglutination and even microbial cell permeation, allowing leaks of intracellular substances [309].
b.: Chitosan chelation characteristics used for the chelation of trace metals blocks the action of certain enzymes, causing cell death.
c.: Fungal chitosan produced through host hydrolytic enzymes from the fungal wall prevents RNA and protein synthesis [310].

4.3.4. Composite-Based Nanomaterial

Ceramic Matrix Nano-Composites (CMNC)

Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNC)

Polymer Matrix Nano-Composites (PMNC)

Nanoparticles	Particle Size (nm)	Targeted Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance	Antibacterial Mechanisms	Factors Affecting Antimicrobial Activity	References
Inorganic Nanomaterials
Fe2O3 NP	1–100
Ag NP	1–100
ZnO NP	10–100
Cu NP	2–350
Au NP	1–100
TiO2 NP	30–45
Si NP	20–400
MgO NP	15–100
Al NP	10–100
SPIONS	15–25
Organic Nanomaterials
Poly-ε- lysine	1–100
Chitosan	200
Quaternary ammonium compounds	1–100
N-halamine compounds	1–10
Quaternary bis-phosphonium and ammonium	1–100
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
Fullerenes	200
CNTs	1–100
Graphene Oxide NPs	12
Composite-Based Nanomaterials
Ceramic Matrix Nano-composites	1–100
Metal Matrix Nano-composites	1–100
Polymer Matrix Nano-composites	1–100

4.4. Mechanism of Action of Nanoparticles

4.5. Drug Release Kinetics of Nanoantibiotics

i.: Surface-bound or adsorbed product desorption
ii.: Drugs diffusion from polymeric NPs
iii.: Polymeric NP erosion and a cumulative erosion/diffusion effect

i.: Lipid membrane composition
ii.: Nature of drug involved
iii.: The percentage of drug’s permeability
iv.

4.6. Synthesis of Nanoparticles

4.6.1. Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Fungi

Bacteria

Plant

4.6.2. Purification of Nanoparticles Extracted Biologically

4.6.3. Nanoparticles Coating for Antibacterial Activity

4.7. Factors Influencing the Synthesis of Various NPs

4.7.1. Temperature

4.7.2. pH

4.7.3. Reaction Time

4.8. Factors Influencing the Activity of Nanoparticles

4.8.1. Chemical Composition of Nanoparticle

4.8.2. Shape of Nanoparticles

4.8.3. The Target Organisms

4.8.4. The Photoactivation

5. Characterization of Nanoparticles

6. Comparison of Antibiotics with Nanoparticles

7. Antimicrobials and Nanoparticles in Combination

8. Antimicrobial Applications of Nanoparticles on Animal Model

9. Challenges for Nanoparticle

10. Conclusions

Author Contributions

Funding

Acknowledgments

Conflicts of Interest

References

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Overcoming Multidrug Resistance of Antibiotics via Nanodelivery Systems

Time Period	Discoveries and Events	References
<19th century	Some of the oldest cultures used complex molds and plant extracts for therapy. For example, the ancient Egyptians added moldy bread to infectious wounds.	[28]
19th century	Scientists began to study the activity of antibacterial chemicals.	[29]
20th century	The most significant case in the history of antibiotics is Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin in 1928. The first antibiotics were introduced in the late 1930s. The time between the 1950s and 1970s is considered the golden age in the development of new types of antibiotics, with no new classes found since then. Between 1944 and 1972, human life expectancy leaps by eight years, primarily due to the advent of antibiotics. Modified forms of erythromycin were used in the 1970s were 1980. In the 1970s, with the staled research and no discovery of new antibiotics, the fight against emerging microbial resistance to antibiotics consisted mainly in the alteration to existing antibiotics. By the 1980s and 1990s, scientists were only able to make advances in the laboratory.	[30]
21st century	Currently, more than 100 antibiotics are available to treat diseases in humans and livestock.	[31]
350 CE–550 CE	Traces of tetracycline from ancient Sudanese Nubia are found in human skeletal remains.	[32]
1887	Soil bacteria application of the Anthrax strain.	[33]
1887	Fever of intestinal Cholera infection.	[34]
1888	A bacterium substance that has antibacterial properties.	[35]
1896	Antibiotic effects found in Penicillium.	[36]
1907	A synthesis of antibiotics derived from arsenic.	[37]
1909	Arsphenamine Antisyphilitic.	[38]
1912	A Chemotherapeutic Polymer, Neosalvarsan.	[39]
1928	Synthesis of penicillin by the bacteria Staphylococcus.	[40]
1930	Decomposition of part of bacillium from soil microorganisms.	[41]
1932	Prontosil, the first microbial to receive sulphonamide.	[42]
1936	Sulfonamide	[43]
1937	Sulfonamides are added as effective antimicrobials.	[44]
1938	Sulfapyridine for the treatment of pneumococcal pneumonia is used in a clinical setting.	[45]
1939	Isolation of Tyrothricin (an antibacterial material).	[46]
1939	Gramicidin A is discovered as the first clinically effective topical antibiotic from the soil bacterium bacillus brevis.	[47]
1939	The penicillin G form became popular, the first penicillin used in therapy.	[48]
1939	Antibiotic sulfacetamide sulfonamide is first reported in the treatment of eye diseases.	[49]
1940	Sulfonamide antibiotic sulfamethoxazole is used as a common agent for the treatment of UTI and is commercialized.	[50]
1941	β-Lactam antibiotics are incorporated into clinical trials for the first time.	[51]
1941	Penicillin for therapeutic use is introduced.	[52]
1942	For the prevention of bacterial infections, sulfadimidine is used.	[53]
1942	Bacteria immune to penicillin were observed for the first time, around one year after penicillin introduction.	[54]
1942	The first antibiotic peptide was isolated from Gramicidin S.	[55]
1943	The first aminoglycoside is discovered—Streptomycin antibiotic. It is the first successful antibiotic against tuberculosis.	[56]
1943	It synthesized a drug called sulfamerazine.	[57]
1943	Penicillin was mass manufactured and used extensively during World War II to treat the Allied forces fighting in Europe.	[58]
1943	First isolates of Bacitracin. This medication is being used to treat minor cuts, burns, and scrapes causing slight skin disease.	[59]
1945	Chloramphenicol is isolated from Streptomyces venezuelae soil organism.	[60]
1947	Chloramphenicol is first synthesized from Streptomyces venezuelae, a soil organism. It was marketed in 1949, owing to its wide range of antimicrobial activity, its use subsequently becoming widespread.	[61]
1947	Chlortetracycline isolated from a sample of mud on the Missouri River. It is the first tetracycline used.	[62]
1947	The antibiotic class of polymyxin is found, the first being polymyxin B isolated from bacterium paenibacillus polymyxa.	[63]
1947	Nitrofuran is used in the drug class. Nitrofurans are organic, antimicrobial agents with a wide variety of activates, which include Giardia and Salmonella spp, amebas, trichomonads, and certain coccidia, against Gram-positive bacteria as well as Gram-negative bacteria.	[64]
1948	Mafenide isolation—an antibiotic of the form of sulfonamide, is approved by the United States FDA.	[65]
1949	The aminoglycoside antibiotic Neomycin is being isolated and used in a variety of topical product lines, such as ointments, eye drops, and creams.	[66]
1950	Oxytetracycline enters commercial use.	[67]
1950	Resistance is observed against chloramphenicol.	[68]
1952	Lincosamides, a small group of agents with a novel structure, unlike any other antibiotic, are introduced.	[69]
1952	Antibiotic thiamphenicol with a wide range of action is synthesized.	[70]
1952	Erythromycin is introduced; an antibiotic for treating bacterial inflammatory diseases, including skin infections, chlamydia infections, respiratory tract infections, syphilis, and pelvic inflammatory diseases.	[71]
1952	We add Streptogramins. Streptogramins are involved in treating vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus.	[72]
1953	Antibiotic cephalosporin C, from which cephalosporins later grow, is discovered. It prevents cell wall replication by preventing the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan.	[73]
1953	Resistance to a macrolide is observed.	[74]
1954	Benzathine penicillin is a drug for the syphilis cure.	[75]
1954	A cycloserine antibiotic is found. This is used to treat tuberculosis.	[76]
1955	First launched to the French market is the macrolide antibiotic spiramycin. Spiramycin is used for treating multiple diseases.	[77]
1956	Second, vancomycin was isolated from the orienlalis bacterium streptomyces. Vancomycin is used to treat severe joint infections, endocarditis, bloodstream infections, bone and skin infections, and meningitis caused by staphylococcus aureus, which is methicillin immune.	[78]
1956	Resistance is observed against erythromycin.	[79]
1957	Kanamycin is being used. It is used for the treatment of serious bacterial infections and tuberculosis.	[80]
1957	We add Ansamycins. These secondary bacterial metabolites demonstrate antimicrobial activity.	[81]
1959	Colistin becomes essential to cure Gram-negative bacterial infections.	[82]
1959	They add nitroimidazole. They are effective bactericidal agents against protozoa and anaerobes.	[83]
1960	Scientists grow methicillin to kill penicillin-resistant strains.	[84]
1960	Metronidazole is used as an important antitrichomonal agent commercially.	[85]
1961	Resistance to Methicillin is first identified.	[86]
1961	It is formulated with antibiotic ampicillin. It will become the medication of choice for the treatment of Hemophilus influenzae meningitis in a short period.	[87]
1961	It is first reported to be spectinomycin. It is used only to cure gonorrhea infections.	[88]
1961	Ethambutol is observed. The medicine is used mainly to treat tuberculosis.	[89]
1962	Fusidic acid is being incorporated into medical practice. Skin infections caused by staphylococcal bacteria are treated with antibiotics.	[90]
1962	Quinolones were mistakenly found as a by-product of studies on the chloroquine antimalarial medication.	[91]
1963	Found gentamicin. It is used to cure different kinds of bacterial infections.	[92]
1963	Gram-negative bacterium Acinetobacter baumannii becomes a pathogen and is immune to antibiotics.	[93]
1965	It is synthesized with Antibiotic Cloxacillin. It is currently effective in the treatment of a variety of bacterial infections, which include septic arthritis, cellulite, measles, external otitis, and impetigo.	[94]
1966	Resistance to Nalidixic Acid is found.	[95]
1966	Doxycycline antibiotics are synthesized. It is currently used to treat tuberculosis, bacterial pneumonia, early Lyme disease, chlamydia, syphilis, and cholera.	[96]
1966	Resistance is observed against cephalothin.	[97]
1967	First is developed clindamycin. It is commonly used for treating a variety of infections caused by bacteria.	[98]
1968	Antibiotic rifampicin is used for medical practice.	[99]
1968	Resistance to Tetracycline is found.	[100]
1968	Introduced Trimethoprim. It is primarily used for urinary infection management.	[101]
1969	Fosfomycin was found. It has a broad spectrum of action towards a vast number of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria.	[102]
1970	Non-toxic, semi-synthetic acid-resistant flucloxacillin isoxazolyl penicillin is incorporated into clinical practice.	[103]
1971	Tobramycin is a discovered aminoglycoside antibiotic. It is used to treat different forms of bacterial infections, especially Gram-negative infections.	[104]
1971	Mupirocin is isolated from Pseudomonas fluorescens.	[105]
1972	The beta-lactam antibiotic cephamycin C is first isolated from the broad extracellular spectrum.	[106]
1972	Minocycline is discovered as an antibiotic. It has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects. Minocycline is used in acne treatment and against several infectious diseases.	[107]
1972	Tinidazole is introduced. It is an antiparasitic drug used against infections of protozoa.	[108]
1973	Carbenicillin is discovered as a bactericidal antibiotic. Carbenicillin is resistant to bactericidal action and beta-lactamase.	[109]
1974	It is a commercially available antibiotic trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole.	[110]
1974	Cotrimoxazole is introduced. It is used in the treatment of many bacterial infections, including bronchitis, pneumonia, intestine infections, urinary tract, and skin	[111]
1976	The discovery of antibiotic amikacin. Amikacin has a broad spectrum towards a wide range of Gram-negative species, including pseudomonas, Escherichia coli, and certain Gram-positive species, such as Staphylococcus aureus.	[112]
1978	Cefoxitin comes in as an early cephamycin.	[113]
1978	The glycopeptide class of teicoplanin is discovered. Teicoplanin is used in the prophylaxis and treatment of severe Gram-positive bacterial infections, including Enterococcus faecalis and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.	[114]
1979	Patent on cefaclor antibiotics. It is used to treat such diseases of the bacteria, for example, pneumonia and eye, lung, ear, urinary tract, and throat infections.	[115]
1981	Resistance to beta-lactamase is found at AmpC.	[116]
1981	The first fluoroquinolone, the ciprofloxacin, is discovered.	[117]
1983	Resistance is found to extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase.	[118]
1985	Discovery of daptomycin, an antibiotic.	[119]
1985	Carbapenems are introduced. They are widely used to treat severe bacterial or high-risk infections.	[120]
1986	An enterococcus immune to vancomycin is identified.	[121]
1987	It is used to treat endocarditis, intra-abdominal infections, sepsis, pneumonia, joint infections, and UTI.	[122]
1987	Extremely powerful fluoroquinolones are introduced. They are used to treat various disorders, such as the urinary tract and respiratory infections.	[123]
1987	Resistance is observed against cephalosporins.	[124]
1987	Resistance is observed against carbapenems.	[125]
1990	Resistance to fluoroquinolone is found.	[126]
1993	It is used to treat bacterial infections such as bronchitis, diarrhea, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and ear, lung, sinus, nose, mouth, and reproductive organs infections.	[127]
1993	Antibiotic clarithromycin is introduced. It is used in the prevention and treatment of certain bacterial infections.	[128]
1994	Cefepime moves into clinical practice. It is licensed to treat mild to severe infections.	[129]
1997	Staphyloccocus is reported to be immune to vancomycin.	[130]
1999	The quinupristin/dalfopristin antibiotic is approved.	[131]
2000	It uses oxazolidinones. These synthetic drugs are active towards a wide variety of Gram-positive bacteria.	[132]
2000	For treating infections caused by Gram-positive bacterial resistance to other antibiotics, antibiotic linezolid is introduced.	[133]
2001	In the European Union, antibiotic telithromycin is approved.	[134]
2001	Broader-spectrum fluoroquinolones are introduced.	[135]
2002	Resistance is observed against linezolid.	[136]
2002	FDA accepts cefditoren, ertapenem and pivoxil.	[137]
2002	Staphylococcus aureus is confirmed to be vancomycin-resistant.	[138]
2003	Introduce lipopeptides as antibiotics.	[139]
2003	Daptomycin is used by Gram-positive species to combat chronic and life-threatening infections.	[140]
2004	Telithromycin is introduced [60]. Certain cases of pneumonia are treated with this drug.	[141]
2005	Antibiotic tigecycline is used for the prevention of intraabdominal infections and skin and skin system infections.	[142]
2011	FDA recommends fidaxomicin to treat Difficile Infection in clostridium.	[143]
2012	FDA recommends bedaquiline for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis therapy.	[144]
2013	FDA recommends telavancin for the prevention of pneumonia in hospitals caused by susceptible Staphylococcus aureus.	[145]
2013	Centers for Disease Control and Prevention identified 17 antibiotic-resistant micro-organisms in the United States, which caused at least 23,000 deaths.	[146]
2015	The American fast-food company McDonald’s announces it will phase out its antibiotic-containing meat products.	[147]
2016	In the United States, ceftazidime/avibactam was approved for use.	[148]
2016	Natural antibiotic teixobactin is present in an uncultivated bacterial screen. Without detectable resistance, it is found to kill pathogens.	[149]
2017	Scientists develop new, safe, and simpler formulations of teixobactin-a next-generation antibiotic that beats multidrug-resistant infections such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.	[150]
2018	The antibiotics called odilorhabdins, or ODLs, are produced by symbiotic bacteria living in nematode worms that colonize food insects in the soil.	[151]
2019	A new family was synthesized using the so-called peptidomimetics.	[152]
2020	The newly-found corbomycin and the lesser-known complestatin have an unparalleled method of destroying bacteria which is accomplished by blocking the bacterial cell wall structure.	[153]
2021	Tebipenem hydrobromide is an oral carbapenem antibiotic in development for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections (cUTI), including pyelonephritis, caused by susceptible microorganisms.	[154]
2021	Cefiderocol: A new cephalosporin stratagem against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria for treating complicated urinary tract infections and nosocomial pneumonia based on clinical trials demonstrating noninferiority to comparators.	[155]

The Role of Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Drug Response: A Systematic Review

Organism (Species)	Resistance to Drugs	Reference
Streptococcus Pneumoniae	Multiple drugs	[169]
Streptococcus pyogenes	Tetracyclines, macrolides	[170]
Mycobacterium tuberculosis	Multiple drugs	[171]
Escherichia coli	Multiple drugs	[172]
Salmonella typhimurium	Multiple drugs	[173]
Neisseria gonorrhoeae	Penicillin, tetracycline, fluoroquinolones	[174]
Gonococci	Quinolone	[175]
Enterobacteriaceae	β-lactam (carbapenem), Quinolone	[176]
Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Multiple drugs	[177]
Enterococcus	Vancomycin	[178]
Staphylococcus aureus	β-lactam (methicillin), Vancomycin	[179]

Antibiotic Approved (FDA)	Identified Resistant Microbes	Released Year	Identification Year of Microbial Resistance
Penicillin	Penicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae Penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae	1941	1942 1967 1976
Vancomycin	Plasmid-mediated vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus	1958	1988 2002
Amphotericin B	Amphotericin B-resistant Candida auris	1959	2016
Methicillin	Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus	1960	1960
Extended-spectrum cephalosporins	Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli	1980	1983
Azithromycin	Azithromycin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae	1980	2011
Imipenem	Klebsiellapneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing Klebsiellapneumonia	1985	1996
Ciprofloxacin	Ciprofloxacin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae	1987	2007
Fluconazole	Fluconazole-resistant Candida	1990	1988
Caspofungin	Caspofungin-resistant Candida	2001	2004
Daptomycin	Daptomycin-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus	2003	2004
Ceftazidime-avibactam	Ceftazidime-avibactam-resistant KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae	2015	2015

Antimicrobial resistance

Fungus and Yeast	Shape of NP	Type of NP	NP Size Range (nm)	Antimicrobial Effect of NP	References
Hexagonal	Ag	2–5	Against S. aureus	[389]
Hexagonal/Spherical	Au and Ag	20–150	Antibacterial	[390]
Oval	TiO2	60–74	Against E. coli and S. aureus	[391]
Spherical	Au	10	Against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. mirabilisS. infantis, P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis	[392]
Spherical	Ag	80	Against B. subtilis, S. aureus, E. coli and S. marcescens,	[393]
Spherical	Ag	10–100	Against B. cereus, S. aureus, E. coli and P. aeruginosa	[394]
Spherical	Au	10–19	Escherichia coli	[395]

Bacteria	Shape of NP	Type of NP	NP Size Range (nm)	Antimicrobial Effect of NP	References
Spherical	CdS	2–5	Against E. coli strain BW25113	[398]
Crystal structures	PbS	40–70	Bioremediation	[399]
Spherical	TiO2	40–60	Suppress aquatic biofilm growth	[400]
Spherical	ZnO	50–70	Against P. aeruginosa and A. flavus	[401]
Spherical	Au	10–20	No data available	[402]
Spherical	ZnO	16–96	Against S. aureus, K. pneumonia, and E. Coli	[403]
Spherical	ZnO	16–96	Against K. pneumonia 125, E. coli 03, E. coli MTCC 9537, S. aureus 20, S. flexneri MTCC 1457, K. pneumonia MTCC 109, P. aeruginosaMTCC 741, S. aureus MTCC 96,	[403]

Plant	Shape of NP	Type of NP	NP Size Range (nm)	Anti-Microbial Effect of NP	References
Spherical/Triangular	ZnO	30–40	Antibacterial	[408]
No typical shape	TiO2	25–110	No data available	[409]
Quasilinear	Ag	40	Antimicrobial	[410]
Rod-shaped	Au	5–20	No data available	[411]
Spherical	CuO	20	Against B. subtilis	[412]
Spherical	Au	46–70	Against E. coli and S. aureus	[413]
Spherical	Au	5–50	Against P. aeruginosa	[414]
–	Fe	80–100	Against P. aeruginosa	[415]
Hexagonal	Fe	21	S. aureus, E. coli, P. mirabilis andS. enterica.	[416]
Spherical	Au	32–89	Salmonella typhi (MTCC 531), P. aeruginosa (MTCC 1688), E. coli (MTCC 1687), B. subtilis (MTCC 441), V. cholerae (MTCC 3906) and S. flexneri (MTCC 9543).	[417]
Hexagonal	ZnO	11–25	S. paratyphi (NCIM 2501), B. subtilis (NCIM 2063), S. aureus (NCIM 2079), and E. coli (NCIM 2065).	[418]

Features	Antibiotics	Nanoparticles	Combination	Reference
Size	Complex because of the poor membrane transport and size scale	The ultra-small size is controllable and can penetrate membranes easily	The small size of the NP carriers makes it easier to transport the antibiotics	[468]
Protection	This shows resistance against bacteria, all because of the increased efflux and decreased uptake.	No resistance against bacteria and shows a strong effect on bacteria.	NP carriers can help protect the drugs from resistance by target bacteria by increasing the serum levels of antibiotic	[469]
Precision and safety	Not targeted at the specific location and thereby shows adverse effects	Helps target the specific areas and thereby minimize the adverse effects.	More specific targeting and minimal adverse effects	[470,471]
Controllability	Uncontrollable release of the drug	Controlled release of the drug	Controlled release of the drug	[472,473,474]
Bioavailability	Low bioavailability and easily biodegradable	Improved bioavailability and non-degradable	Improved bioavailability and non-degradable	[475]
Enzymatic degradation	These can be degraded enzymatically	Cannot be degraded enzymatically	Cannot be degraded enzymatically	[475]

Animal Model	Nano-Particles	Applications	Reference
Piglets	Nano zinc	Diarrhea in young piglets can be reduced by Nano zinc	[479]
Albino Rats	Silver	AgNPs using A. nobilis revealed higher microbicidal activity for wound healing.	[480]
Mouse	Gold	In xenograft mouse models, QAuNPs significantly inhibited cell proliferation, caused apoptosis in vitro, and destroyed angiogenesis and tumor regression in vivo	[481]
Mouse	Copper	Treatment of wounds in mice with copper nanoparticles.	[482]

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Mubeen, B.; Ansar, A.N.; Rasool, R.; Ullah, I.; Imam, S.S.; Alshehri, S.; Ghoneim, M.M.; Alzarea, S.I.; Nadeem, M.S.; Kazmi, I. Nanotechnology as a Novel Approach in Combating Microbes Providing an Alternative to Antibiotics. Antibiotics 2021, 10, 1473. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10121473

Mubeen B, Ansar AN, Rasool R, Ullah I, Imam SS, Alshehri S, Ghoneim MM, Alzarea SI, Nadeem MS, Kazmi I. Nanotechnology as a Novel Approach in Combating Microbes Providing an Alternative to Antibiotics. Antibiotics. 2021; 10(12):1473. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10121473

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mubeen, Bismillah, Aunza Nayab Ansar, Rabia Rasool, Inam Ullah, Syed Sarim Imam, Sultan Alshehri, Mohammed M. Ghoneim, Sami I. Alzarea, Muhammad Shahid Nadeem, and Imran Kazmi. 2021. “Nanotechnology as a Novel Approach in Combating Microbes Providing an Alternative to Antibiotics” Antibiotics 10, no. 12: 1473. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics10121473

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